Grammar Rule: 2

Rule #1 — Common exam “fixes”: prepositions, comparison patterns, and adjective-after-linking-verbs

1) Accused / charged (prepositions)

Use accuse + somebody + of + (verb-ing / noun).

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A common alternative in passive meaning is (be) charged with + (verb-ing / noun).

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2) Over vs above

When something is moving and is higher than something else, the rule says use over (not above).

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3) “Twice as … as” patterns

For uncountable ideas like cost, use twice as much as.

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For countable plural nouns (friends), use twice as many … as.

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4) Linking verbs that take adjectives (not adverbs)

The notes emphasize that verbs like feel / taste / look / smell / sound take adjectives in the “spontaneous/condition” sense (e.g., feel happy, taste good).

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5) Comparison must be between similar things

Use that/those to compare correctly (e.g., the cities … than those of …).

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Rule #2 — “Must / might” certainty + “should” in past vs advice now

Must vs might (certainty)

Must = you are sure.

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Might = possibility / not sure (including might have + 3rd form for past possibility).

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Must be vs might be (present)

Must be for strong certainty; might be for possibility.

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Should have / shouldn’t have / should be

Should have = something you didn’t do in the past (regret).

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Shouldn’t have = something you did in the past but it was a bad idea.

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Should be + adjective = advice about a state/behavior.

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Rule #3 — W-H words + direct vs indirect question structure

W-H words list includes: what, when, where, why, how, whom, who, which, whose + if/whether.

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Direct questions (W-H at the start)

Structure shown: W-H + auxiliary + subject + verb (example: When are you coming?).

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Indirect questions (W-H in the middle)

Structure shown: W-H + subject + auxiliary + verb (no inversion like direct questions).

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Rule #4 — Articles (A/AN/THE) + special “THE” cases

Indefinite articles: A / AN

Use a/an with singular countable nouns when the person/thing is not specified or is first mentioned.

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A before consonant sounds; AN before vowel sounds (sound matters).

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“Silent h” words listed (heir, heiress, honest, honour, hour) take an.

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Definite article: THE

Use the when something is already referenced or clearly identified.

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The notes also show “the + adjective” to mean a group (e.g., the poor, the Dutch).

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“the” is used before rivers/seas/oceans/mountain ranges.

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Rule #5 — Nouns & Pronouns (countable/uncountable + pronoun types)

Nouns

A noun is a naming word (thing/idea).

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Proper nouns are specific names and are capitalized.

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Singular countable nouns must have a determiner (a/an/the/my/your/etc.).

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Uncountable nouns: can’t be counted, are always singular, and don’t take a/an/another.

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Other / Another

Other + plural nouns (other people/cars).

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Another + singular countable (another person/car).

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Pronouns

Pronouns replace nouns to avoid repetition.

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The PDF lists types like personal, reflexive, possessive, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, indefinite.

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Rule #6 — Adverbs (types + typical placement)

An adverb adjusts verbs/adjectives/determiners/clauses and adds detail like how/when/where/how much.

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Adverbs of time

Often at the beginning or end; sometimes moved to the start for emphasis.

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Adverbs of place

Usually after the main verb/object or at the end.

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Adverbs of manner

Often end with -ly (neatly, politely, etc.).

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Adverbs of frequency

Often placed directly before the main verb.

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Adverbs of quantity

Many/few patterns for countables; much/little patterns for uncountables (plus a lot/lots/too many/too much/not enough).

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Rule #7 — Adjectives (where they go)

An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun and adds description.

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Two common positions

Next to the noun/pronoun (usually before it; sometimes after—like “someone else”).

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After a linking verb as a subject complement (The land is new.).

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Also: multiple adjectives can modify the same noun, and the notes mention typical adjective order.

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Rule #8 — Present tenses (forms + meanings)

Simple present

For actions that happen regularly/constantly; form = root or +s/+es.

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Present continuous

Form: subject + am/is/are + verb-ing.

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Present perfect

Uses has/have + past participle for past actions linked to the present.

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Present perfect continuous

Form: has/have been + verb-ing (started in past, continues now).

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The notes say it’s not used with stative verbs like want/need/love/hate.

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Rule #9 — Past tenses (forms + sequences)

Simple past

Regular verbs: add -ed (or -d if the verb ends in e).

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Past perfect

Form: had + past participle and used to show an earlier past event before another past event; the notes warn not to use it unless showing sequence.

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Past continuous

Form: was/were + verb-ing.

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Past perfect continuous

Form: had been + verb-ing; started in the past, continued, and ended in the past.

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Rule #10 (file named “Rule #0”) — Future tenses (forms)

Simple future

Form: will + root verb.

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Future perfect

Form: will have + past participle.

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Future continuous

Form: will be + verb-ing.

Grammar Rules / Notes